- Prematurity and very low birth weight (<1500 g)
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- Fetal growth restriction, especially infants with birth weight <3rd percentile for gestational age (refer to UpToDate content on fetal [intrauterine] growth restriction)
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- Long-term parenteral nutrition (>4 weeks)
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- Bronchopulmonary dysplasia treated with loop diuretics and/or fluid restriction
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- Long-term postnatal corticosteroid use
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- History of necrotizing enterocolitis or other diseases causing intestinal failure, especially in patients who undergo surgical intervention
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- Feeds that do not have high mineral content (eg, due to poor tolerance of fortified feeds)
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- Metabolic or endocrine disorders including severe cholestasis or renal disease
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