| Erythrocyte transfusion (passive) |
| Delayed clamping of the umbilical cord (eg, >2 minutes after birth) |
| Uncontrolled or precipitous delivery |
| Intrapartum hypoxia |
| Twin-twin transfusion (10 to 15% of monochorionic twins) |
| Maternal-fetal transfusion (rare) |
| Increased intrauterine erythropoiesis (active) |
| Placental insufficiency |
| Preeclampsia |
| Other hypertensive disorders |
| Other vascular disorders |
| Maternal hypoxemia due to cardiac or pulmonary disorders |
| Cardiac or pulmonary disorders |
| Drugs (eg, propranolol) |
| Smoking |
| High altitude |
| Post-term delivery |
| Infant risk factors |
| Large for gestational age |
| Maternal diabetes mellitus |
| Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome |
| Endocrine abnormalities (congenital adrenal hyperplasia, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism) |
| Chromosomal anomalies (trisomy 21, 18, and 13) |
