| Dietary and medication related causes |
| Dietary indiscretion - excessive salt or water intake |
| Nonadherence to medications |
| Iatrogenic volume expansion |
| Progressive cardiac dysfunction |
| Progression of underlying cardiac dysfunction |
| Physical, emotional, and environmental stress |
| Cardiac toxins: |
| Alcohol |
| Cocaine |
| Right ventricular pacing |
| Cardiac causes not primarily myocardial in origin |
| Cardiac arrhythmias: |
| Atrial fibrillation with a rapid ventricular response |
| Ventricular tachycardia |
| Marked bradycardia |
| Conduction abnormalities |
| Uncontrolled hypertension |
| Acute myocardial infarction |
| Myocardial ischemia |
| Valvular disease: |
| Progressive mitral regurgitation |
| Non-cardiac causes |
| Pulmonary disease - pulmonary embolus, COPD |
| Anemia, from bleeding or relative lack of erythropoietin or bone marrow suppression |
| Systemic infection; especially pulmonary infection |
| Thyroid disorders |
| Adverse cardiovascular effects of medications |
| Cardiac depressant medications |
| Nondihydropyridine calcium antagonists |
| Type Ia and Ic antiarrhythmic agents |
| Sodium retaining medications |
| Steroids |
| Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs |
| Medications that reduce contractility |
| Anthracyclines and other chemotherapeutic agents |
