| Malignancy |
| Common: Esophageal cancer, lung cancer |
| Less common: Laryngeal cancer, thyroid cancer, lymphoma, thymic cancer |
| Prolonged endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy |
| Endoscopic intervention (eg, endobronchial laser or cryotherapy) |
| Infectious diseases |
| Tuberculosis |
| Actinomycosis |
| Bacterial abscess |
| Inflammatory diseases (eg, rheumatoid arthritis) |
| Trauma (eg, penetrating trauma to the neck or chest) |
| Caustic ingestion |
| Esophageal stent |
| Surgery |
| Thoracic laryngectomy, esophagectomy |
| Cardiac |
| Mediastinal |
| Radiotherapy |
| Chemotherapy (eg, bevacizumab) |
