Cardinal manifestations |
Tremor |
Bradykinesia |
Rigidity |
Postural instability |
Other motor features |
Craniofacial |
Hypomimia (masked facial expression) |
Decreased eye blinking |
Speech disturbances (hypokinetic dysarthria, hypophonia) |
Dysphagia |
Sialorrhea |
Visual |
Blurred vision |
Impaired contrast sensitivity |
Hypometric saccades |
Impaired vestibuloocular reflex |
Impaired upward gaze and convergence |
Lid apraxia |
Musculoskeletal |
Micrographia |
Dystonia |
Myoclonus |
Stooped posture |
Camptocormia (severe anterior flexion of the thoracolumbar spine) |
Pisa syndrome (subacute axial dystonia with lateral flexion of the trunk, head, and neck) |
Kyphosis |
Scoliosis |
Difficulty turning in bed |
Gait |
Shuffling, short-stepped gait |
Freezing |
Festination |