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Multiple myeloma: Initial treatment

Multiple myeloma: Initial treatment
Author:
Jacob P Laubach, MD, MPP
Section Editor:
S Vincent Rajkumar, MD
Deputy Editor:
Rebecca F Connor, MD
Literature review current through: Dec 2022. | This topic last updated: Jun 16, 2022.

INTRODUCTION — Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell neoplasm characterized by clonal plasma cells that produce a monoclonal immunoglobulin. These plasma cells proliferate in the bone marrow and can result in extensive skeletal destruction with osteolytic lesions, osteopenia, and/or pathologic fractures. Additional disease-related complications include hypercalcemia, kidney impairment, anemia, and infections. Treatment directed at the underlying plasma cell clone is required to prevent complications and improve overall survival.

MM must be distinguished from the premalignant stages of myeloma, namely monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) and smoldering multiple myeloma (SMM) (table 1 and algorithm 1). In contrast to MM, active treatment is not routinely indicated for patients with MGUS or SMM. (See "Multiple myeloma: Clinical features, laboratory manifestations, and diagnosis".)

The initial chemotherapy for patients with MM treated in resource-rich settings is discussed here. Other aspects of care are discussed separately, including chemotherapy options for patients in resource-poor settings, a general management overview, details regarding the use and timing of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation, and response assessment.

(See "Multiple myeloma: Overview of management".)

(See "Multiple myeloma: Management in resource-limited settings".)

(See "Multiple myeloma: Use of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation".)

Separate discussions are also available regarding the administration of common therapies, the use of osteoclast inhibitors, thromboprophylaxis for patients receiving immunomodulatory agents, and the treatment of relapsed or resistant MM.

(See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

(See "Multiple myeloma: The use of osteoclast inhibitors".)

(See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)".)

(See "Multiple myeloma: Treatment of first or second relapse".)

(See "Multiple myeloma: Treatment of third or later relapse".)

GOALS OF THERAPY — Patients with MM are not cured with conventional therapy. Treatment alleviates symptoms, reverses cytopenias, and decreases end-organ damage, and is given with the overall goals of achieving and maintaining a response, improving quality of life, and prolonging overall survival.

CHOICE OF THERAPY

Risk stratified treatment

Risk stratification and other factors impacting choice — Patients with MM can be categorized as having standard-risk or high-risk disease based on the results of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for specific translocations and/or deletions and certain other tests (table 2). This risk stratification has considerable prognostic value and helps guide the selection of initial therapy (algorithm 2). Risk stratification is discussed in detail separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Overview of management", section on 'Risk stratification'.)

The choice among treatment regimens should also take into consideration the patient's:

Age

Performance status

Comorbid conditions

Preferences regarding the type of treatment they receive

Potential for chemotherapy-related side effects  

All patients should be evaluated for supportive care and use of prophylaxis to minimize complications. (See 'Prevention and management of complications' below.)

Although historically the regimens used as induction therapy for transplant-eligible patients differed significantly from those used for patients who are not eligible for transplant, that is no longer the case, particularly as melphalan-based regimens are rarely used for transplant-ineligible patients whereas they were widely used in the past.

Many of the preferred treatment options have not been compared directly with each other in a randomized trial in these patient populations. As such, there is no standard of care and different experts use different regimens. Data supporting their use come largely from single-arm trials or randomized trials comparing these regimens with other regimens. Three-drug regimens are preferred over two-drug regimens whenever possible because they appear to provide an overall survival (OS) benefit. Four-drug regimens may offer additional benefit to patients with high-risk MM.

Our approach is generally consistent with that proposed by the International Myeloma Working Group [1-7]. Links to guidelines are provided separately. (See 'Society guideline links' below.)

Standard-risk myeloma — For patients with standard-risk MM (table 2), three-drug regimens are preferred over two-drug regimens because randomized trials suggest that they improve OS (algorithm 2). Use of four-drug regimens is evolving. Outside of a clinical trial, we do not offer four-drug combinations to patients with standard-risk MM given their generally good prognosis and the increased risk of toxicity associated with adding a fourth drug. (See 'Four-drug regimens' below.)

Our preferred three-drug regimen for standard-risk MM is influenced by comorbidities and treatment burdens:

For most patients, we suggest initial treatment with bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (VRd) (table 3). This preference is based on a randomized phase 3 trial demonstrating superior OS with VRd when compared with lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd) (table 4) [8]. (See 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' below.)

Daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DRd (table 5)) is also an important option, especially for patients who may not tolerate bortezomib because of pre-existing peripheral neuropathy. DRd has shown improved OS when compared with Rd [9]. (See 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)' below.)

Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, and dexamethasone (VCd, also called CyBorD) (table 6) is an acceptable alternative for patients at higher risk of complications with lenalidomide (eg, acute kidney failure, increased thromboembolic risk) and for those in countries in which lenalidomide is not approved for initial therapy [10]. (See 'Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, dexamethasone (VCd)' below and 'Acute kidney failure' below.)

Patients who are eligible for autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) are typically treated with three to six cycles of induction therapy followed by autologous stem cell collection. Then a decision is made regarding whether to proceed with autologous HCT (early HCT strategy) or continue the same chemotherapy regimen reserving HCT for first relapse (delayed HCT strategy). (See 'Incorporating HCT in eligible patients' below.)

The total number of cycles used for an individual patient depends on whether the patient plans to proceed immediately with HCT, how well they tolerate the regimen, and the response to treatment. Those not proceeding to early HCT are typically treated with 8 to 12 cycles, as tolerated, followed by maintenance until progression. Choice of maintenance regimen is discussed in more detail separately. (See 'Maintenance for patients who are ineligible for or defer HCT' below.)

High-risk myeloma — Patients with high-risk MM (table 2) should be encouraged to participate in clinical trials and should be considered for novel therapeutic strategies, since they tend to do less well with conventional treatment options. Outside of a clinical trial, we suggest initial treatment with a proteasome inhibitor-containing regimen and/or daratumumab-containing regimen. This preference is based on limited data that suggest use of these agents may abrogate the prognostic impact of at least some of these high-risk genetic markers [11-15].

Our preferred regimen depends on whether the patient is a candidate for autologous HCT, the specific genetic abnormality found, and comorbidities (algorithm 2):

HCT ineligible – For patients with high-risk MM who are ineligible for HCT, we administer 8 to 12 cycles of a three-drug regimen that includes a proteasome inhibitor or daratumumab, followed by maintenance until progression (algorithm 2).

For most patients, we prefer bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (VRd) (table 3) or daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DRd) (table 5) as these combinations have demonstrated an OS benefit over lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd) alone [8,9]. (See 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' below and 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)' below.)

Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, and dexamethasone (VCd) (table 6) is an acceptable alternative for patients at higher risk of complications with lenalidomide (eg, acute kidney failure, increased thromboembolic risk) and for those in countries in which lenalidomide is not approved for initial therapy [10]. (See 'Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, dexamethasone (VCd)' below.)

HCT eligible – For patients with high-risk MM who are candidates for autologous HCT, we administer three to six cycles of a regimen that contains a proteasome inhibitor and/or daratumumab. We then collect stem cells and proceed with single or double HCT, followed by two-agent maintenance until progression (algorithm 2). This preference for early HCT and the choice between single or double HCT is discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Use of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation", section on 'Timing of HCT' and "Multiple myeloma: Use of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation", section on 'Double HCT and/or consolidation'.)

For the initial treatment of patients with del17p, gain 1q, t(4;14), t(14;16), or ≥2 high-risk abnormalities, we prefer off-label use of the four-drug combination daratumumab, bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DVRd) rather than VRd [16]. (See 'Daratumumab, bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DVRd)' below.)

This preference is based on historically poor outcomes in this population and a meta-analysis of patients with high-risk MM included in six phase 3 trials evaluating the addition of daratumumab to various regimens in the newly diagnosed or relapsed setting [12]. In this meta-analysis, a similar progression-free survival (PFS) improvement was seen with the addition of daratumumab regardless of the backbone treatment used in patients with high-risk MM, defined as having t(4;14), t(14;16), or del(17p). A PFS benefit was seen when daratumumab was added to initial therapy (hazard ratio [HR] 0.67, 95% CI 0.47-0.95) or subsequent therapy (HR 0.45, 95% CI 0.30-0.67). Additional data evaluating DVRd are presented separately. (See 'Four-drug regimens' below.)

For all other patients with high-risk MM, we prefer VRd rather than DVRd (algorithm 2). This preference recognizes that the data supporting the use of DVRd in previously untreated MM are limited and reserves its use to those patients with the highest risk disease. DRd is an alternative in this population. (See 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' below.)

Limited data suggest that use of a proteasome inhibitor may abrogate the prognostic impact of at least some of these high-risk genetic markers, and thus highlights the importance of including a proteasome inhibitor as a component of treatment in patients with such disease characteristics. As an example, in a phase 3 randomized trial of bortezomib, melphalan, and prednisone (VMP) compared with MP in 682 patients with newly diagnosed MM, patients with high-risk myeloma (n = 26) treated with VMP had similar time to progression and OS rates as those with standard-risk disease on subset analysis [11]. While the numbers were small, bortezomib appeared to eliminate t(4;14), t(14;16), and del(17p) as prognostic factors.

A comparison of the Total Therapy 2 (TT2) trial that did not incorporate bortezomib and the Total Therapy 3 (TT3) trial that did also suggests a role for bortezomib in high-risk disease [13-15]. In TT2, the subset of patients with t(4;14) had shorter event-free survival (EFS) and OS when compared with patients who lack this translocation. This difference in EFS and OS was not seen in patients treated in TT3 [17].

Special populations — The general treatment principles described above apply to most treatment settings and patient populations. However, patients with kidney failure, frail adults, and patients being treated in resource-poor settings require special consideration.

Acute kidney failure — In patients with acute kidney failure due to cast nephropathy, regimens that act rapidly and can be used safely without major dose adjustment are preferred. Lenalidomide is typically avoided.

Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, and dexamethasone (VCd, also known as CyBorD) and bortezomib, thalidomide, and dexamethasone (VTd) are two primary options, and the choice between the two is based on experience with the regimen and drug availability; in the United States, VCd is more widely used than VTd. Our approach to patients with this presentation is discussed separately. (See "Kidney disease in multiple myeloma and other monoclonal gammopathies: Treatment and prognosis", section on 'Overview of approach'.)

Frail adults — Frail adults are often older patients with comorbidities and limited ability to perform instrumental and standard activities of daily living who experience higher rates of treatment discontinuation due to toxicity, and inferior PFS and OS [18-23]. Older adults may benefit from a more formal comprehensive geriatric assessment to assess frailty. (See "Comprehensive geriatric assessment for patients with cancer".)

Dose modifications are needed in this population. For all of the regimens discussed below, we advise that the dose of lenalidomide be decreased to 15 mg (instead of 25 mg), and the dose of dexamethasone to 20 mg once a week (instead of 40 mg once a week). For patients who attain a good response after 9 to 12 months of a regimen that includes lenalidomide plus dexamethasone, we discontinue dexamethasone, and continue lenalidomide alone rather than both drugs as maintenance. Support for this transition is discussed separately. (See 'Lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd)' below.)

The choice of initial regimen should take into account tolerability and convenience (algorithm 2):

Lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd) (table 4) is an effective oral regimen and is our preferred option for frail patients with standard-risk MM unable to tolerate a three-drug regimen. (See 'Lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd)' below.)

Bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (VRd) (table 3) is a three-drug option, especially for patients with high-risk MM, that can be given at a modified dose and schedule to enhance tolerability in this population [24]. If tolerated, VRd improves OS over that seen with Rd alone [8]. (See 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' below and 'High-risk myeloma' above.)

Daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DRd) (table 5) is another three-drug option for patients who cannot receive or tolerate bortezomib. If tolerated, DRd improves OS over that seen with Rd alone [9]. (See 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)' below.)

While response rates mirror those in other populations, the main challenge is treatment discontinuation and/or early mortality due to toxicity. In a phase 2 trial (HOVON 143) of ixazomib, daratumumab, plus dexamethasone in frail patients with newly diagnosed MM, half were unable to complete the planned induction therapy [25].

Resource-poor settings — Newer agents for the treatment of MM are not routinely available in many countries due to lack of regulatory approval or due to high cost. In these settings, the choice of initial therapy should consider alternative regimens. These include several melphalan-based regimens, anthracycline-based regimens, and thalidomide-based regimens. These are discussed in more detail separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Management in resource-limited settings".)

COORDINATING CARE

Incorporating HCT in eligible patients — High-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT; rescue) is a standard of care for eligible patients with newly diagnosed MM. As such, all patients with MM should be assessed at the time of diagnosis to determine whether they are eligible for autologous HCT, and the initial chemotherapy given to patients who are candidates for HCT should avoid agents that may damage stem cells (eg, melphalan). (See "Multiple myeloma: Overview of management", section on 'Determining transplant eligibility'.)

Patients who are eligible for HCT are typically treated with three to six cycles of induction therapy followed by autologous stem cell collection (algorithm 2). Then a decision is made regarding whether to proceed with autologous HCT (early HCT strategy) or continue the same chemotherapy regimen reserving HCT for first relapse (delayed HCT strategy). Both approaches so far have produced similar overall survival (OS) rates, with the incorporation of HCT associated with longer duration of progression-free survival (PFS).

Whether to pursue an early versus delayed HCT strategy depends on clinical features and risk stratification, response to induction therapy, and patient preferences regarding the timing of transplant. This is discussed in more detail separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Use of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation", section on 'Timing of HCT'.)

Maintenance for patients who are ineligible for or defer HCT — There is ongoing debate regarding the role of maintenance therapy in patients with MM who are ineligible for or defer autologous HCT and experts differ in their approach. We suggest maintenance therapy for most patients; this preference places a high value on delaying progression and the potential for an as yet unproven OS benefit, and places a lower value on the risks associated with continued therapy.

Our preferred maintenance depends on risk stratification and comorbidities (algorithm 2). The risk of second cancers must be discussed with all patients who are treated with lenalidomide maintenance [26]. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies", section on 'Immunomodulatory drugs'.)

High-risk MM – Following 8 to 12 cycles of triplet or quadruplet induction therapy, we offer patients with high-risk MM two-agent maintenance until time of disease progression. For those initially treated with DVRd or VRd, we offer maintenance with both lenalidomide and bortezomib. For those initially treated with DRd, we offer maintenance with both lenalidomide and daratumumab.

Standard-risk MM – Following 8 to 12 cycles of triplet therapy, we offer patients with standard-risk MM maintenance with single-agent lenalidomide until progression.

Frail patients – Following 8 to 12 cycles of treatment with modified triplet therapy or lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd), we offer frail patients with standard-risk MM maintenance with single-agent lenalidomide until progression. (See 'Frail adults' above.)

The rationale for maintenance therapy in MM includes the incurability of MM and recognition that relapse may present acutely with life-threatening complications. Prospective trials suggest that maintenance therapy prolongs PFS, but data are mixed as to whether there is meaningful improvement in OS. Additional support for maintenance comes from extrapolation of data that have shown improved OS with maintenance therapy after HCT. This is discussed in more detail separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Use of autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation", section on 'Maintenance'.)

Lenalidomide maintenance was incorporated into both arms of the randomized trials that demonstrated improved OS with VRd versus Rd (SWOG S0777) and with DRd versus Rd (MAIA) [8,27,28]. However, the impact of maintenance on the outcomes seen in these trials cannot be assessed given the lack of a maintenance-free control arm.

The trials that have evaluated maintenance therapy in patients not undergoing HCT have limitations. In some, factors other than maintenance differed between the two arms. In others, the regimens used are outdated. As an example, the FIRST trial demonstrated better OS with continuous Rd when compared with 18 months of melphalan, prednisone, and thalidomide (MPT) in transplant-ineligible patients with previously untreated MM [29-31]. However, the arms differed both in length of therapy and agents used. As another example, the FORTE trial demonstrated improved PFS with two-drug maintenance (carfilzomib plus lenalidomide) when compared with lenalidomide maintenance (three year PFS from randomization to maintenance 75 versus 65 percent; HR 0.64; 95% CI 0.44-0.94) [32]. As maintenance was investigated as a second randomization, the population studied included patients with standard- and high-risk MM treated with different induction regimens with or without HCT.

A 2015 meta-analysis compared continuous therapy versus fixed-duration therapy in patients with newly diagnosed MM [33]. This analysis was restricted to the 1218 patients who were progression-free and alive at one year after random assignment (ie, those eligible for continuous therapy). Two trials used lenalidomide maintenance while one used maintenance with bortezomib and thalidomide. After a median follow-up of 52 months, maintenance therapy resulted in improved PFS (median 32 versus 16 months, HR 0.47; 95% CI 0.40-0.56), second PFS (median 55 versus 40 months, HR 0.61; 95% CI 0.50-0.75), and OS (69 versus 60 percent alive at four years, HR 0.69; 95% CI 0.54-0.88). The improved second PFS suggests that the administration of maintenance therapy did not adversely impact the ability to respond to subsequent therapy. However, it is not clear whether all patients in the control arms had access to lenalidomide and bortezomib at the time of relapse. Toxicity and impact on quality of life were not examined.

Studies have evaluated single-agent lenalidomide as maintenance in standard-risk MM as there are known risks to continuous glucocorticoid therapy and the benefits are unclear. In two randomized trials, there was no clear benefit from the addition of prednisone to lenalidomide maintenance [34,35]. Another trial demonstrated similar efficacy and better tolerability with Rd for nine cycles followed by reduced-dose lenalidomide maintenance without dexamethasone when compared with continuous Rd in intermediate-fit older adults [36]. (See 'Lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd)' below.)

An open-label, multicenter, randomized, phase III trial (Myeloma XI) compared maintenance with single-agent lenalidomide (10 mg daily on 21 of 28 days per cycle) versus observation in 1917 patients with MM followed for a median of 31 months [37]. In a prespecified subgroup analysis of the 723 patients ineligible for transplant who underwent initial treatment with at least six cycles of induction that included cyclophosphamide, dexamethasone, and either thalidomide or lenalidomide, lenalidomide maintenance improved PFS (median 26 versus 11 months; HR 0.44, 95% CI 0.37-0.53) but not OS (OS at three years 67 versus 70 percent; HR 1.02, 95% CI 0.80-1.29). However, of the patients assigned to lenalidomide, approximately 70 percent had dose modifications and 15 percent discontinued lenalidomide due to toxicity.

There are limited data regarding ixazomib maintenance. In a placebo-controlled, randomized trial (TOURMALINE-MM4) of >700 patients with newly diagnosed MM not undergoing autologous transplant, ixazomib maintenance prolonged PFS (median PFS 17 versus 9 months, HR 0.66, 95% CI 0.54-0.80) [38]. Rates of grade 3 or greater treatment-emergent adverse events were increased (37 versus 23 percent). The most common any grade adverse events were nausea (27 percent), vomiting (24 percent), and diarrhea (23 percent).

Prevention and management of complications — In addition to therapy directed at the malignant clone, the management of most patients with MM includes preventative measures to reduce the incidence of skeletal events, kidney damage, infections, neuropathy, and thrombosis.

Skeletal lesions and bone health – Osteoclast inhibitors (eg, bisphosphonate therapy or denosumab) are administered to prevent skeletal events in patients with one or more lesions on skeletal imaging and those with osteopenia (algorithm 3). (See "Multiple myeloma: The use of osteoclast inhibitors".)

Skeletal lesions can result in bone pain, pathologic fractures, and spinal cord compression.

Pathologic fractures or impending fractures of long bones require stabilization. Vertebral fractures may benefit from kyphoplasty or vertebroplasty. Most pain related to lytic lesions can be controlled with the combination of analgesics and active myeloma chemotherapy. (See "Management of complete and impending pathologic fractures in patients with metastatic bone disease, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma".)

Spinal cord compression is a clinical emergency and should be suspected in patients with severe back pain, weakness, or paresthesias of the lower extremities, or bladder or bowel dysfunction or incontinence. (See "Treatment and prognosis of neoplastic epidural spinal cord compression".)

Kidney impairment – All patients with MM should take measures to minimize kidney damage (eg, avoid nephrotoxins such as aminoglycosides and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [NSAIDs] and maintain adequate hydration). Many medications used for myeloma require dose adjustment for kidney impairment (eg, lenalidomide, zoledronic acid). Treatment of kidney impairment is directed at the underlying cause. (See "Kidney disease in multiple myeloma and other monoclonal gammopathies: Treatment and prognosis".)

Infection – Prophylactic measures used to minimize infection in patients with MM include yearly influenza vaccines; pneumococcal vaccine at the time of diagnosis; and prophylactic antibiotics during the first months of induction chemotherapy. Antiviral and pneumocystis prophylaxis may also be indicated. (See "Infections in patients with multiple myeloma".)

Patients suspected of having an infection should be treated promptly with empiric antibiotics. (See "Treatment and prevention of neutropenic fever syndromes in adult cancer patients at low risk for complications".)

Thromboprophylaxis – Patients with MM are at increased risk of having comorbidities known to be risk factors for the development of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in the general population. In addition, treatment with immunomodulatory drugs (eg, lenalidomide, pomalidomide, thalidomide) is associated with high rates of VTE. All patients with MM should have an assessment of their VTE risk so that appropriate prophylaxis may be employed (algorithm 4). (See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)".)

Neuropathy – Peripheral neuropathy, often painful, can occur in association with various chemotherapeutic agents, including both proteasome inhibitors (especially bortezomib) and immunomodulatory agents. The frequency and severity of peripheral neuropathy with bortezomib can be reduced by adjusting the route (subcutaneous rather than intravenous administration) and frequency (once versus twice weekly) of administration. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies", section on 'Specific recommendations for bortezomib'.)

Peripheral neuropathy is more frequent and severe in those who have previously received neurotoxic therapy and those with pre-existing neuropathy [39]. Regimens that do not include bortezomib (eg, daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone) may be preferred as initial therapy in such patients. (See 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)' below.)

When neuropathy occurs, it can impair quality of life and ability to perform activities of daily living. Management is discussed separately, including dose modification and/or treatment discontinuation. (See "Overview of neurologic complications of conventional non-platinum cancer chemotherapy", section on 'Bortezomib' and "Overview of neurologic complications of conventional non-platinum cancer chemotherapy", section on 'Thalidomide and related agents'.)

Hypercalcemia – Patients with hypercalcemia may be asymptomatic or present with anorexia, nausea, vomiting, polyuria, polydipsia, constipation, weakness, confusion, or stupor. The treatment of hypercalcemia depends on the calcium level, the rapidity with which it developed, and the patient's symptoms. Emergency treatment with hydration, glucocorticoids, bisphosphonates, and/or hemodialysis/calcitonin is indicated for symptomatic patients. (See "Treatment of hypercalcemia".)

REVIEW OF CHEMOTHERAPY REGIMENS — Several regimens are available for the treatment of newly diagnosed MM. The most common are discussed in the following sections. A choice among them is presented in more detail above (algorithm 2). (See 'Choice of therapy' above.)

Additional options for patients treated in resource-poor settings are presented separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Management in resource-limited settings".)

Three-drug regimens — Three-drug regimens discussed below are the mainstay of initial therapy for most patients with MM based on numerous phase 3 trials summarized below. A choice among these regimens is presented in more detail separately (algorithm 2). (See 'Choice of therapy' above.)

Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)

Clinical use – The combination of bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (VRd) (table 3) is one of our preferred treatment options for MM (algorithm 2). Specific administration considerations are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Efficacy – When compared with lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd) alone, VRd improves overall survival (OS).

In a multicenter, open-label phase 3 trial (SWOG S0777), 525 patients with previously untreated MM were randomly assigned to receive six months of induction therapy with either VRd or Rd, each followed by Rd maintenance until progression or unacceptable toxicity [8,40]. Approximately one-third of patients had high-risk disease. At a median follow-up of 84 months, VRd resulted in the following:

Higher rates of overall response (OR; 82 versus 72 percent) and complete response (CR; 16 versus 8 percent)

Superior progression-free survival (PFS; median 41 versus 29 months; hazard ratio [HR] 0.74; 95% CI 0.59-0.93)

Superior OS (median not reached versus 69 months; HR 0.71; 95% CI 0.54-0.93)

In a subset analysis, the benefit with VRd was also seen in patients with high-risk disease with median PFS numerically higher with VRd (38 versus 16 months), although these differences were not statistically significant likely due to small numbers. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies", section on 'Specific recommendations for bortezomib'.)

Toxicity – In SWOG S0777, VRd was associated with greater toxicity and a greater number of patients discontinuing therapy due to toxicity (55 versus 22 patients) [8].  

Major toxicities of VRd include peripheral neuropathy, transient cytopenias, fatigue, and gastrointestinal distress. Thromboprophylaxis and antiviral prophylaxis are required. Of note, the SWOG S0777 trial VRd protocol used twice-weekly intravenous bortezomib. Neurotoxicity rates are lower with once-weekly subcutaneous bortezomib.  

Toxicities, dose adjustments for organ impairment, and options for thromboembolism prophylaxis are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)" and "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)

Clinical use – The combination of daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DRd) (table 5) has demonstrated tolerability and efficacy in the management of patients with newly diagnosed MM. It is an option for the initial treatment of MM, especially for patients who cannot receive or tolerate bortezomib (eg, those with pre-existing neuropathy). DRd is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of patients with newly diagnosed MM who are ineligible for autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT).

Efficacy – When compared with lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd) alone, DRd improves OS without a major increase in toxicity.

In a multicenter, open-label phase 3 trial (MAIA), 737 patients with newly diagnosed MM ineligible for HCT were randomly assigned to receive Rd with or without daratumumab (Rd versus DRd) [27]. Treatment was continued until disease progression or unacceptable side effects. After a median follow-up of 56 months, the addition of daratumumab resulted in [9]:

Deeper responses (CR or better 51 versus 30 percent).

Improved PFS (5-year PFS 53 versus 29 percent; median not reached versus 34 months; HR 0.53, 95% CI 0.43-0.66).

Improved OS (5-year OS 66 versus 53 percent; HR 0.68, 95% CI 0.53-0.86).

Improved measures of healthcare-related quality of life, including quicker, sustained improvements in patient-reported outcomes, including pain [28].

Use of DRd in the relapsed setting is discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Treatment of first or second relapse", section on 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)'.)

Toxicity – In MAIA, DRd increased rates of grade 3 or 4 neutropenia (54 versus 37 percent) and pneumonia (19 versus 11 percent) [27]. More patients receiving daratumumab had dose adjustments or discontinuation of lenalidomide (74 versus 56 percent). Infusion reactions were reported in 41 percent of patients receiving daratumumab. Most reactions were mild and associated with the first infusion.

Major toxicities of DRd include cytopenias, infections, and gastrointestinal distress. Thromboprophylaxis and antiviral prophylaxis are required.  

Daratumumab was administered intravenously (IV) in the MAIA trial, but the subcutaneous formulation is now more widely used as it is equally effective as IV, the rate of infusion reactions is lower, and the formulation is more convenient for patients given the brief period of administration.

Toxicities, dose adjustments for organ impairment, and options for thromboembolism prophylaxis are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)" and "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, dexamethasone (VCd)

Clinical use – The combination of bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, and dexamethasone (VCd, also called CyBorD) (table 6) has demonstrated tolerability and efficacy in the management of patients with newly diagnosed MM. In general, we prefer VRd or DRd given the OS benefit for these regimens when compared with Rd (algorithm 2). VCd is a reasonable alternative for patients at higher risk of complications with lenalidomide (eg, acute kidney failure, increased thromboembolic risk) and for those in countries in which lenalidomide is not approved for initial therapy. (See 'Acute kidney failure' above.)

The dosing schedule for VCd typically used in practice, with weekly rather than twice-weekly dosing of bortezomib and dexamethasone, is a modification of that used in clinical trials in order to reduce neurotoxicity and dexamethasone-related toxicity. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Efficacy and toxicity – In a phase 2 trial (EVOLUTION), 140 patients with newly diagnosed MM were randomly assigned to receive initial treatment with bortezomib and dexamethasone in combination with lenalidomide (VRd), cyclophosphamide (VCd), or both (VDCR) [10]. After an interim analysis, the protocol was amended to change the VCd regimen to include an additional dose of cyclophosphamide (VCd-mod). Following four cycles of therapy, OR rates were 73, 63, 82, and 80 percent in patients who received VRd, VCd, VCd-mod, and VDCR, respectively. Corresponding rates of very god partial response (VGPR) or better were 32, 13, 41, and 33 percent. Approximately 88 percent of patients receiving VCd-mod experienced at least one severe (grade 3/4) toxicity with the most common being neutropenia (24 percent), neuropathy (18 percent), and anemia (12 percent).

Further details on toxicities and dose adjustments for organ impairment are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Bortezomib, thalidomide, dexamethasone (VTd)

Clinical use – The combination of bortezomib, thalidomide, and dexamethasone (VTd) (table 7) is a reasonable alternative if it is not possible to administer VRd or DRd because of lack of availability of lenalidomide as induction therapy, and in patients presenting with acute kidney failure. In these circumstances, VTd and VCd are two primary options, and the choice between the two is based on experience with the regimen and drug availability; in the United States, VCd is more widely used than VTd.

Efficacy and toxicity – Randomized trials have compared VTd (table 7) versus VCd, thalidomide and dexamethasone (Td), and bortezomib plus dexamethasone (VD). When compared with VCd, VTd results in higher response rates, although PFS and OS data are not mature. The addition of bortezomib to Td improves response rates and PFS; longer follow-up is required to evaluate OS. In contrast, the addition of thalidomide to VD has yet to demonstrate an improvement in PFS or OS.

VTD versus VCD – In a multicenter phase 3 trial (IFM2013-04), 340 patients with newly diagnosed MM were randomly assigned to receive initial treatment with four cycles of VTD or VCD, each followed by HCT [41]. VTD resulted in a higher OR rate (92 versus 83 percent) and VGPR rate (66 versus 56 percent). VTD resulted in more neurologic toxicity and less hematologic toxicity. There were five deaths during induction, two in the VTD arm (infection, pulmonary embolism) and three in the VCD arm (infections and disease progression). Survival data are not mature.

VTD versus TD – Two randomized trials comparing VTD versus TD included a total of 860 patients with previously untreated MM undergoing single or double autologous HCT [42-44]. The addition of bortezomib did not impact stem cell mobilization and resulted in higher response rates and improved PFS. Patients receiving VTD had higher rates of peripheral neuropathy, thromboembolism, infection, and skin rash, but lower rates of gastrointestinal distress.

VTD versus VD – Two randomized trials have compared VTD versus VD. One trial in HCT-eligible patients compared lower than usual doses of bortezomib and thalidomide (vtD) versus standard doses of VD and demonstrated deeper responses and less peripheral neuropathy in those assigned to vtD [45]. vtD therapy was associated with a significantly higher percentage of patients requiring the addition of cyclophosphamide in order to collect an adequate number of stem cells. In another trial, 502 patients with previously untreated myeloma who were not candidates for HCT were randomly assigned to receive VTD, VD, or bortezomib, melphalan, and prednisone (VMP) [46]. At a median follow-up of 43 months, there was no significant difference in median PFS (15, 15, and 17 months) or OS (52, 50, and 53 months).

Further details on toxicities, dose adjustments for organ impairment, and options for thromboembolism prophylaxis are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)" and "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Nonstandard regimens — The regimens described below have not been approved by regulatory agencies for the initial treatment of MM and there have been concerns raised about use in this population. They are approved for use in the relapsed setting, and there may be specific scenarios where their use for initial treatment may be reasonable.

Ixazomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (IRd)

Clinical useIxazomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (IRd) is an all oral three-drug regimen that is a treatment option for relapsed MM (table 8). Use in previously untreated patients is not approved by regulatory agencies and thus should be limited at this time [47].

Efficacy – A placebo controlled, randomized trial (TOURMALINE-MM2) evaluated the addition of ixazomib to lenalidomide and dexamethasone in 705 transplant-ineligible patients with newly diagnosed MM [48]. Patients received 18 cycles of IRd or placebo-RD, followed by a lower dose of lenalidomide with lower-dose ixazomib or placebo until progression or toxicity.

IRd resulted in a numerically higher median PFS, which did not reach statistical significance but would be clinically meaningful if true (median PFS 35 versus 22 months, HR 0.83, 95% CI 0.68-1.02). This benefit was seen in all prespecified subgroups, including the 280 patients with high-risk cytogenetics (median PFS 24 versus 18 months, HR 0.69, 95% CI 0.51-0.94). An OS difference has not been demonstrated (HR 0.998, 95% CI 0.79-1.26).

Although IRd was not directly compared to VRd or DRd in this trial and cross-trial comparisons have limitations, the PFS benefit seen with IRd appears to be less substantial than that seen with VRd in the SWOG S0777 trial and with DRd in the MAIA trial [8,27]. (See 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' above and 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)' above.)

Use of IRd in relapsed/refractory MM is discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Treatment of first or second relapse", section on 'Ixazomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (IRd)'.)

Toxicity – Among patients treated with IRd on TOURMALINE-MM2, there was a small increase in grade 3 or 4 treatment-emergent adverse events (88 versus 81 percent), with lower rates of neutropenia and increased rates of diarrhea, rash, thrombocytopenia, arrhythmia, pneumonia, and heart failure.

Further details on toxicities, dose adjustments for organ impairment, and options for thromboembolism prophylaxis are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)" and "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Carfilzomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (KRd) — We generally do not use carfilzomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (KRd) in patients with newly diagnosed MM, regardless of risk stratification (algorithm 2).

While prospective studies have shown deep responses following KRd plus autologous HCT in newly diagnosed MM [32,49,50], randomized trials have not compared this approach to VRd plus HCT, and extrapolation from studies in the non-transplant setting suggests similar efficacy, but greater toxicity.

In a multicenter phase 3 trial (ENDURANCE E1A11), over 1000 patients with previously untreated MM with no intent for early HCT were randomly assigned to nine months of induction with either KRd or VRd, each followed by a second randomization to lenalidomide maintenance given for either two years or until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity [51]. The vast majority of patients had standard-risk MM; the trial excluded patients with del17p, t(14;16), t(14;20), plasma cell leukemia, or lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) >2 times upper limit of normal. VRd and KRd resulted in similar PFS (median PFS 34 versus 35 months, HR 1.04, 95% CI 0.83-1.31) and OS (3 year OS 84 versus 86 percent, HR 0.98, 95% CI 0.71-1.36). VRd was associated with more peripheral neuropathy, while KRd was associated with more dyspnea, hypertension, heart failure, and acute kidney injury.

Four-drug regimens — Three-drug regimens are preferred over two-drug regimens whenever possible because they appear to provide an OS benefit. Use of four-drug regimens is evolving. Outside of clinical trials, we reserve four-drug regimens for a subset of transplant-eligible patients with high-risk MM. (See 'High-risk myeloma' above.)

Daratumumab, bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DVRd)

Clinical use – We reserve the off-label use of daratumumab, bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DVRd) for the initial treatment of patients with high-risk MM who are candidates for HCT and whose MM demonstrates del17p, gain 1q, t(4;14), t(14;16), or ≥2 high-risk abnormalities. (See 'High-risk myeloma' above.)

In contrast, we do not routinely offer DVRd to other patients with high-risk MM or patients with standard-risk MM. However, escalation to DVRd is a reasonable option for selected patients with less than minor response after two cycles of induction with VRd or DRd.

Efficacy and toxicity – In a phase 2 trial (GRIFFIN), 207 patients with newly diagnosed MM eligible for HCT were randomly assigned to receive induction with four cycles of VRd with or without daratumumab (DVRd versus VRd), followed by autologous HCT plus two cycles of consolidation with the assigned regimen, then up to two years of maintenance with either lenalidomide alone or with lenalidomide plus daratumumab [16]. DVRd resulted in higher OR rates (99 versus 92 percent) and deeper responses. After a median follow-up of 22 months, PFS was immature with an estimated 24 month PFS of 96 and 90 percent in the two arms. Toxicity was greater with DVRd, with higher rates of neutropenia and upper respiratory tract infections. Further follow-up of this trial and other trials investigating this combination (eg, PERSEUS, NCT 03710603) are needed to determine whether this combination improves PFS or OS.

Daratumumab, bortezomib, thalidomide, dexamethasone (DVTd)

Clinical useDaratumumab, bortezomib, thalidomide, and dexamethasone (DVTd) is approved by the US FDA for the treatment of patients with newly diagnosed MM who are eligible for autologous HCT. However, this and other thalidomide-containing regimens are not commonly used in the United States as initial therapy. DVTd is used more frequently in other countries.

Efficacy and toxicity – When compared with VTd, DVTd improves PFS without a major increase in toxicity. OS data are immature.

In a phase 3 trial (CASSIOPEIA), 1085 patients with newly diagnosed MM eligible for HCT were randomly assigned to receive induction with four cycles of bortezomib, thalidomide, and dexamethasone with or without daratumumab (DVTd versus VTd), followed by autologous HCT plus two cycles of consolidation with the assigned regimen [52,53]. Those achieving a partial response or better were then randomly assigned to observation versus daratumumab maintenance for a maximum of two years. After a median follow-up of 45 months, the addition of daratumumab to induction resulted in:

Improved PFS (HR 0.58, 95% CI 0.47-0.72).

While the survival data are immature, there were fewer deaths in the DVTd arm (41 versus 73; HR 0.54, 95% CI 0.37-0.79), a finding that would be clinically significant if confirmed on further follow-up.

While collection of CD34+ cells was more difficult in the DVTd arm, approximately 90 percent of patients in both arms proceeded with HCT and achieved hematopoietic reconstitution.

When compared with VTd, DVTd increased neutropenia, lymphopenia, and pneumonia. Infusion reactions to daratumumab (mostly mild) were reported in 35 percent.

Daratumumab maintenance improved PFS among patients who underwent VTd induction (HR 0.32, 95% CI 0.23-0.46) but not among those who underwent DVTd induction (HR 1.02; 95% CI 0.71-1.47). Infusion-related reactions were reported in 55 percent of patients receiving daratumumab maintenance (mostly grade 1 or 2) and 3 percent discontinued daratumumab due to an adverse event.

The results of the second randomization question the value of continued daratumumab maintenance after induction with a daratumumab-containing regimen. Those who received a total of six cycles of daratumumab with induction did not appear to benefit from an additional two years of daratumumab maintenance. Given the uncertainty of benefit, we do not routinely offer maintenance daratumumab following six cycles of daratumumab-based quadruplet induction therapy and HCT.

Daratumumab, bortezomib, melphalan, prednisone (DVMP)

Clinical useDaratumumab, bortezomib, melphalan, and prednisone (DVMP) is approved by the US FDA for the treatment of patients with newly diagnosed MM who are ineligible for autologous HCT. However, this and other melphalan-containing regimens are not commonly used in the United States as initial therapy. DVMP is used more frequently in other countries.

Importantly, DVMP is not an appropriate regimen for patients who are candidates for HCT. Melphalan-containing regimens should be avoided prior to the collection of stem cells, since their use has been associated with damage to the hematopoietic stem cell compartment. Melphalan-containing regimens have a larger role in the management of myeloma in resource-poor settings. (See "Multiple myeloma: Management in resource-limited settings".)

Efficacy and toxicity – When compared with VMP, DVMP improves both PFS and OS without a major increase in toxicity.

In a phase 3 trial (ALCYONE), 706 patients with newly diagnosed MM ineligible for HCT were randomly assigned to receive nine cycles of bortezomib, melphalan, and prednisone with or without daratumumab until disease progression (DVMP versus VMP) [54,55]. The addition of daratumumab resulted in:

Higher rates of OR (91 versus 74 percent) and minimal residual disease negativity (22 versus 6 percent).

Superior PFS (51 versus 19 percent at three years, median 36 versus 19 months, HR 0.42; 95% CI 0.34-0.51).

Superior OS (78 versus 68 percent at three years, HR 0.60; 95% CI 0.46-0.80).

More grade 3 or 4 infections (22 versus 15 percent during induction and 11 percent during maintenance). Daratumumab-related infusion reactions occurred in 28 percent.

While these results suggest that the addition of daratumumab during induction and maintenance can deepen responses and delay progression, it is not known whether PFS was improved due to the addition of daratumumab, the use of maintenance, or both. An OS benefit was seen, but only 10 percent of patients in the control arm received daratumumab at the time of progression, and all of these patients were alive at three years. As such, it is not known whether this OS benefit is due to the incorporation of daratumumab into initial therapy, or the use of suboptimal second and subsequent therapies in the majority of patients.

Two-drug regimens — Three-drug regimens are preferred over two-drug regimens whenever possible because they appear to provide an OS benefit. The two-drug regimens discussed below are not used frequently, but they are of importance in frail patients who may not be able to tolerate standard three-drug regimens.

Lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd)

Clinical useLenalidomide plus low-dose dexamethasone (Rd) (table 4) is an effective oral regimen for the initial treatment of MM and is our preferred regimen for frail patients with standard-risk MM unable to tolerate a three-drug regimen (algorithm 2). While the FIRST trial continued Rd until progression, a subsequent trial supports switching to a reduced-dose lenalidomide maintenance without dexamethasone after completing 8 to 12 cycles of Rd. (See 'Frail adults' above and 'Risk stratified treatment' above.)

Efficacy – Prospective trials have demonstrated the efficacy of Rd in the initial treatment of MM when compared with dexamethasone alone and with the combination of melphalan, plus prednisone and thalidomide (MPT) [29-31,56-58].

In the FIRST trial, 1623 patients with previously untreated MM who were not candidates for HCT (median age 73 years) were randomly assigned to one of three initial treatment options: Rd until progression; Rd for 18 months; or MPT for 18 months [29-31]. At a median follow-up of 67 months, continuous Rd resulted in the following, when compared with MPT:

Higher rates of VGPR or better (48 versus 30 percent)

Shorter time to response (2 versus 3 months)

Longer PFS (median 26 versus 22 months; HR 0.69)

Superior OS (median 59 versus 49 months; HR 0.78)

Lower rates of neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, neuropathy, and constipation

Higher rates of infections, venous thromboembolism, and cataracts

No increase in second primary malignancies (7 versus 9 percent)

In the same trial, Rd administered until progression resulted in longer PFS and time until second anti-myeloma therapy than when Rd was stopped after 18 months (median PFS 70 versus 40 months). There was no significant difference seen in the rate of VGPR or better or in OS. Cumulative toxicity rates were higher in patients taking Rd until progression. Given the PFS improvement and general tolerability, we prefer to continue treatment until progression unless there is toxicity.

Reduced-dose lenalidomide for maintenance – Transition to a reduced-dose lenalidomide maintenance without dexamethasone is supported by a phase 3 trial of 199 intermediate-fit older adults with newly diagnosed MM randomly assigned to continuous Rd until progression or to nine cycles of Rd followed by maintenance with a lower dose of lenalidomide (10 mg daily for 21 out of 28 days each cycle) without dexamethasone (Rd-R) [36]. After a median follow-up of 37 months, Rd-R resulted in trends toward improved PFS (median 20 versus 18 months, HR 0.78; 95% CI 0.55-1.10) and OS (three-year OS 74 versus 63 percent; HR 0.62, 95% CI 0.37-1.03), although these have not reached statistical significance and OS data are immature. Rd-R was better tolerated with less grade 3 or greater non-hematologic toxicity (33 versus 43 percent) and fewer lenalidomide dose reductions (45 versus 62 percent).

As a result, for frail older adult patients treated with Rd as initial therapy, we suggest discontinuing dexamethasone after 8 to 12 cycles of Rd, and continuing lenalidomide alone as maintenance. This trial has similar implications for other MM regimens used in newly diagnosed disease in the nontransplant setting that incorporate maintenance dexamethasone (eg, VRd). If there is good disease control after at least one year of initial therapy on such regimens, it is reasonable to omit dexamethasone and continue with lenalidomide maintenance alone.

Toxicity – Further details on toxicities, dose adjustments for organ impairment, and options for thromboembolism prophylaxis are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients receiving immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide)" and "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

Bortezomib plus dexamethasone (Vd)

Clinical use – The combination of bortezomib plus dexamethasone (Vd) is a two-drug regimen that may be offered to older and/or frail adults with significant kidney impairment. Vd requires a twice-weekly bortezomib schedule, which is associated with a higher risk of severe peripheral neuropathy than that seen with three-drug regimens that use once-weekly dosing. When possible, we prefer the three-drug regimen bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (VRd) (algorithm 2). (See 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' above.)

Efficacy and toxicity – A phase 2 trial examined the use of six cycles of Vd followed by autologous HCT in the treatment of 40 newly diagnosed, previously untreated patients with MM [59]. The OR rate before HCT was 65 percent with the majority of responses occurring within the first two cycles of treatment. The OR rate after HCT was 88 percent with 33 percent CR and 22 percent VGPR. Toxicity was mild.

A phase 3 trial randomly assigned therapy with Vd or VAD (vincristine, doxorubicin, dexamethasone) as induction therapy prior to autologous HCT in 482 patients with newly diagnosed MM [60]. Vd resulted in significantly higher response rates and a trend toward longer PFS. No improvement in OS was seen. This study shows that superior VGPR and CR rates may not translate into meaningful improvements in PFS or OS, and it illustrates the limitations of CR and VGPR as surrogate endpoints in myeloma.

Further details on toxicities and dose adjustments for organ impairment are discussed separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies", section on 'Proteasome inhibitors'.)

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC — The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has increased the complexity of cancer care. Important issues include balancing the risk from treatment delay versus harm from COVID-19, ways to minimize negative impacts of social distancing during care delivery, and appropriately and fairly allocating limited health care resources. Additionally, immunocompromised patients are candidates for a modified vaccination schedule (figure 1), other preventive strategies (including pre-exposure prophylaxis), and the early initiation of COVID-directed therapy. These issues and recommendations for cancer care during the COVID-19 pandemic are discussed separately. (See "COVID-19: Considerations in patients with cancer".)

SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS — Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions around the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Multiple myeloma".)

INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS — UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, "The Basics" and "Beyond the Basics." The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on "patient education" and the keyword(s) of interest.)

Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient education: Multiple myeloma symptoms, diagnosis, and staging (Beyond the Basics)" and "Patient education: Multiple myeloma treatment (Beyond the Basics)" and "Patient education: Hematopoietic cell transplantation (bone marrow transplantation) (Beyond the Basics)")

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Risk stratification – While experts differ in their preferred initial treatment regimen for multiple myeloma (MM), there is general agreement that the choice must incorporate genetic features, risk of neuropathy and thrombosis, kidney function, and treatment burdens. (See 'Risk stratification and other factors impacting choice' above.)

MM can be categorized as standard-risk or high-risk disease based on the results of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for specific translocations and/or deletions and certain other tests (table 2). This risk stratification has considerable prognostic value and also helps guide treatment (algorithm 2).

Induction for standard-risk MM – For most patients with standard-risk MM, we suggest initial treatment with bortezomib, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (VRd) (table 3) rather than lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd) (algorithm 2) (Grade 2B). In a randomized phase 3 trial, VRd improved overall survival (OS) when compared with Rd. (See 'Standard-risk myeloma' above and 'Bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (VRd)' above.)

Daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (DRd) (table 5) is an alternative, especially for patients who may not tolerate bortezomib (eg, those with pre-existing neuropathy). (See 'Daratumumab, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DRd)' above.)

The doses and schedules of VRd and DRd can be modified for use in frail adults. Rd (table 4) is an acceptable alternative for frail adults who cannot tolerate a three-drug regimen. (See 'Frail adults' above and 'Lenalidomide plus dexamethasone (Rd)' above.)

Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, and dexamethasone (VCd) (table 6) is an alternative for patients at higher risk of complications with lenalidomide (eg, acute kidney failure, increased thromboembolic risk). (See 'Bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, dexamethasone (VCd)' above.)

Until further data are available regarding efficacy, we do not routinely incorporate a fourth drug into the treatment of newly diagnosed standard-risk MM. However, escalation to DVRd is a reasonable option for selected patients with less than minor response after two cycles of induction with VRd or DRd. (See 'Four-drug regimens' above.)

Post-induction management for standard-risk MM – Patients who are eligible for autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) receive three to six cycles of induction therapy followed by stem cell collection (algorithm 2). Then a decision is made regarding whether to proceed with HCT (early HCT strategy) or continue the same chemotherapy regimen reserving HCT for first relapse (delayed HCT strategy). (See 'Incorporating HCT in eligible patients' above.)

Those not proceeding to early HCT are typically treated with 8 to 12 cycles, as tolerated, followed by maintenance with single-agent lenalidomide until progression. (See 'Maintenance for patients who are ineligible for or defer HCT' above.)

High-risk MM – Patients with high-risk MM are encouraged to participate in clinical trials of novel strategies, since they tend to do less well with conventional treatment. Outside of a trial, we use a proteasome inhibitor-containing or daratumumab-containing regimen (algorithm 2). (See 'High-risk myeloma' above.)

Not HCT eligible – For patients who are not candidates for autologous HCT, we suggest VRd (table 3) or DRd (table 5) rather than Rd (Grade 2B). VCd (table 6) is an alternative for patients at higher risk of complications with lenalidomide (eg, acute kidney failure, increased thromboembolic risk). After 8 to 12 cycles, we offer maintenance that includes both lenalidomide and bortezomib until time of disease progression.

We do not use carfilzomib, as substitution of carfilzomib for bortezomib does not improve efficacy and worsens toxicity.

HCT eligible – For patients who are candidates for HCT, we administer three to six cycles of a proteasome inhibitor and/or daratumumab-containing regimen. We then collect stem cells and proceed with HCT, followed by maintenance that includes a proteasome inhibitor and lenalidomide until progression. For patients with del17p, gain 1q, t(4;14), t(14;16), t(14;20), and those with ≥2 high-risk abnormalities, we suggest induction with the off-label combination daratumumab, bortezomib, lenalidomide, dexamethasone (DVRd) rather than VRd (Grade 2C). For all other patients with high-risk MM, we prefer VRd or DRd.

Prevention and management of complications – In addition to therapy directed at the malignant clone, the management of most patients with MM includes preventative measures to reduce the incidence of skeletal events (algorithm 3), thrombosis (algorithm 4), kidney damage, infections, and neuropathy. (See 'Prevention and management of complications' above.)

Specific administration considerations, including toxicities and dose adjustments for organ impairment are discussed in more detail separately. (See "Multiple myeloma: Administration considerations for common therapies".)

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